Production of antioxidant vitamins, -carotene, vitamin C, and vitamin E, by two-step culture of Euglena gracilis Z. Biotechnol. For example, RNAi-mediated silencing of EgWSD isoenzymes resulted in reduced wax ester production in E. gracilis (Teerawanichpan and Qiu, 2010; Tomiyama et al., 2017). doi: 10.1023/a:1008022305865, Kusmic, C., Barsanti, L., Di Lascio, N., Faita, F., Evangelista, V., and Gualtieri, P. (2018). Therefore, protein sourced from E. gracilis could provide an alternative to supplement a vegetarian diet (US Department of Agriculture., 2018). doi: 10.2216/09-112.1, Mller, C., Ortmann, T., Abi, A., Hartig, D., Scholl, S., and Jrdening, H.-J. Kataoka, H., Shimura, T., Mizoshita, T., Kubota, E., Mori, Y., Mizushima, T., et al. Soc. Heterologous expression of EgFAR together with EgWS in the industrially relevant organism S. cerevisiae has been shown to produce WEs of medium chain lengths from supplemented FAs. The alga Euglena gracilis (E. gracilis) has recently gained attention as a health food, but its effects on human gut microbiota remain unknown. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0290(19970120)53:2<185::AID-BIT8>3.0.CO;2-K, Tanaka, Y., Ogawa, T., Maruta, T., Yoshida, Y., Arakawa, K., and Ishikawa, T. (2017). In this context, E. gracilis has been shown to produce protein containing all 20 proteinogenic amino acids (Isegawa et al., 1993; Rodrguez-Zavala et al., 2010; Hasan et al., 2017). Carbohydrate Polymers 105, 9096. Nuclear transformation of the versatile microalga Euglena gracilis. Fatty acyl-CoA reductase and wax synthase from Euglena gracilis in the biosynthesis of medium-chain wax esters. doi: 10.1007/s11095-018-2553-8, Shibakami, M., and Sohma, M. (2018). Food Sci. (2012). Towards this end, an E. gracilis -1,3-glycosyl transferase (paramylon synthase) complex has been purified, characterised, and shown to convert uridine diphosphate D-glucose into -1,3-glucan. For example, expression of the Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 fructose-1,6-/sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase gene in E. gracilis chloroplasts was shown to significantly enhance its photosynthetic activity, as well as the paramylon yield (by almost 2-fold), the WE yield under anaerobic conditions (~100-fold) and the biomass yield (~2-fold) (Ogawa et al., 2015). 36, 111. Immunopathol. 74, 714722. Wax ester synthase/diacylglycerol acyltransferase (EgWSD) isozymes have been shown to fulfil a role similar to that of EgWS. Life Sci. Nevertheless, this study offered that lipid . At present, only two enzymes of this pathway, the D-galacturonate reductase and aldonolactonase, have been biochemically characterised in vitro. Eng. Applicability of Euglena gracilis for biorefineries demonstrated by the production of -tocopherol and paramylon followed by anaerobic digestion. Therapeut. doi: 10.1080/00021369.1986.10867518, Shigeoka, S., Toshio, O., Yoshihisa, N., and Shozaburo, K. (1987). doi: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.2009.00452.x. 50, 10631065. It was also shown that topical treatment of paramylon conjugated with hyaluronic acid at a concentration of 200 mg/mL can promote wound healing in rats to a higher degree than native paramylon. From the middle of the twentieth century, microalgae have been exploited as a candidate biomass source of food and other products. Bull. Structural and functional analysis of three beta-glucosidases from bacterium Clostridium cellulovorans, fungus Trichoderma reesei and termite Neotermes koshunensis. doi: 10.1023/A:1010573218863, Yasuda, K., Ogushi, M., Nakashima, A., Nakano, Y., and Suzuki, K. (2018). Int. Chem. Interactions between photoautotrophic and heterotrophic metabolism in photoheterotrophic cultures of Euglena gracilis. doi: 10.1039/C3FO60256G, Weber, D., and Grune, T. (2012). J. Biochem. To circumvent this issue, a fed-batch two-step cultivation method with a transition from MT to PT growth conditions has been developed and shown to increase the -carotene titre per L culture more than 6-fold (Table 1) (Takeyama et al., 1997). doi: 10.3390/foods6070053, Hosotani, K., and Kitaoka, S. (1977). Growth and chemical composition of Spirulina maxima and Spirulina platensis biomass at different temperatures. B Agricult. doi: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1968.tb02189.x, Wallis, J.G., and Browse, J. (1968). Sci. (2018). (2011). Biol. MySQL. BMC Genomics 17, 110. Its most studied wild-type strains are Z and bacillaris, but their discrimination by standard molecular methods is difficult.Therefore, we decided to test the suitability of MALDI-TOF MS (matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry . (2009). Suppression of the phytoene synthase gene (EgcrtB) alters carotenoid content and intracellular structure of Euglena gracilis. This study aimed to determine the effect of E . Perspect. Biosynthesis of docosahexaenoic acid in Euglena gracilis: biochemical and molecular evidence for the involvement of a 4-fatty acyl group desaturase. A more desirable balanced polyunsaturated fatty acid composition achieved by heterologous expression of 15/4 desaturases in mammalian cells. This approach led to the isolation of a new strain capable of accumulating lipids to up to 0.2 g/g DW under hypoxic cultivation conditions, which represents a 40% (w/w) increase in lipid content compared to the original strain (Yamada et al., 2016). Commercially relevant bioproducts synthesised by E. gracilis feature protein containing essential amino acids, pro(vitamins), lipids, and the -1,3-glucan paramylon (Takeyama et al., 1997; Rodrguez-Zavala et al., 2010; Pollak et al., 2012). Exp. doi: 10.3109/02713683.2013.811262, Croft, M.T., Lawrence, A.D., Raux-Deery, E., Warren, M.J., and Smith, A.G. (2005). For example, the antimicrobial activity of paramylon was enhanced chemically by introducing positively charged groups (e.g., 2-hydroxy-3-trimethylammoniopropyl, N,N-diethylaminoethyl, and N,N-dimethylaminoethyl groups) and sulphated paramylon was shown to exhibit anti-HIV activity (Sakagami et al., 1989; Koizumi et al., 1993). (2018). Consequently, it may be a viable commercial strategy to use E. gracilis to produce these high-value products with biofuel commodities as a co-product (Barsanti and Gualtieri, 2018). (2006). Carbohydrate Polymers 196, 339347. Determination of the nutritive value of Euglena gracilis protein by in vitro digestion experiments and rat feeding tests. Identification and enzymatic characterization of an endo-1,3--glucanase from Euglena gracilis. 333, 381388. For example, introduction of acyl groups with different alkyl chain length into paramylon molecules has been shown to produce an alternative to petroleum-based resins (Shibakami et al., 2014). 35, 5868. Impact of -1,3-glucan isolated from Euglena gracilis on corneal epithelial cell migration and on wound healing in a rat alkali burn model. 16, 112. Biochem. Vitaminol. For example, when preneoplastic aberrant crypt foci (marker for colon cancer risk) were induced in the colon of mice by 1,2-dimethylhydrazine treatment, the subsequent inclusion of 2% (w/w) paramylon into their diet reduced the development of colon cancer by 50% (Bird, 1995; Watanabe et al., 2013). The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. doi: 10.1021/np049892x, Kimura, M., and Ishikawa, T. (2018). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0191462, Takeda, T., Nakano, Y., Takahashi, M., Konno, N., Sakamoto, Y., Arashida, R., et al. Despite substantial evidence for the health-enhancing bioactivities of paramylon and paramylon-derived compounds as outlined above, we are not aware of any clinical studies confirming these claims. Light dependency of resistance to ionizing radiation in Euglena gracilis. doi: 10.3177/jnsv.64.8, Nakazawa, M., Andoh, H., Koyama, K., Watanabe, Y., Nakai, T., Ueda, M., et al. Shibakami, M., Shibata, K., Akashi, A., Onaka, N., Takezaki, J., Tsubouchi, G., et al. doi: 10.1016/j.pisc.2015.07.002, O'Neill, E.C., Trick, M., Hill, L., Rejzek, M., Dusi, R.G., Hamilton, C.J., et al. (2017). Biochem. Osaka Prefecture Ser. It has secondary chloroplasts, and is a mixotroph able to feed by photosynthesis or phagocytosis. Carbohydrate Polymers 93, 499505. Biomass Bioenergy 112, 138143. Food Chem. (2009). Curr. Wax ester fermentation and its application for biofuel production, in Euglena: Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, eds S. D. Schwartzbach and S. Shigeoka (Cham: Springer International Publishing), 269283. doi: 10.1002/fsn3.828, Nakashima, A., Suzuki, K., Asayama, Y., Konno, M., Saito, K., Yamazaki, N., et al. (2017). (2017). A history of vitamin E. Ann. doi: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2017.09.167, Nakashima, A., Yamada, K., Iwata, O., Sugimoto, R., Atsuji, K., Ogawa, T., et al. Beneragama) doi: 10.1016/0005-2744(67)90227-6, Matos, .P. !3 . These findings highlight the potential of E. gracilis enzymes for the microbial production of biofuels (Teerawanichpan and Qiu, 2010; Tomiyama et al., 2017; Nandy and Srivastava, 2018). Biochem. Paramylon is the water-insoluble storage polysaccharide of E. gracilis, which consists of -1,3-linked glucose subunits, and has an estimated molecular weight between 100 and 500 kDa (Figure 3A) (Miyatake and Kitaoka, 1983; Koizumi et al., 1993; Barsanti et al., 2011). Algal Res. There are a few isolated reports on genetic manipulation of E. gracilis. (2007). doi: 10.1021/bi034731y, Milani, A., Basirnejad, M., Shahbazi, S., and Bolhassani, A. doi: 10.1039/C3MT00313B, Garca-Garca, J.D., Pea-Sanabria, K.A., Snchez-Thomas, R., and Moreno-Snchez, R. (2018). Attempts to enhance E. gracilis biomass production under PT conditions, for example with the use of a photobioreactor, resulted in maximum titres similar to those of shake flask cultures, which are several times lower than those of some microalgal species grown under closed PT conditions (Table 1) (Richmond et al., 2003; Chae et al., 2006; Hasan et al., 2017). doi: 10.1002/fsn3.383. (2018). Remarkably, paramylon has been shown to reduce the risk of cancer. Shigeoka, S., Nakano, Y., and Kitaoka, S. (1980). J. Appl. Built genome and transcriptome annotation database for Euglena gracilis using relational databases e.g. Phytochemistry 116, 2127. Algal Res. However, further studies are needed to confirm this proposed regulatory role. (2003). The impact of microalgae in food science and technology. Bioeng. The two novel studies proposed Euglena gracilis as a working model of gravitaxis [4], and the applied molecular toolkits and methods can be used to bioengineer E . Adaptive laboratory evolution - harnessing the power of biology for metabolic engineering. PLoS ONE 8, 16. (2001). Aquacult. (2004). Bioprocess Biosyst. AG was supported by an international Macquarie University Research Excellence Scholarship. We would like to thank the Macquarie University Microscopy Unit for its contribution to Figure 3. Another indicator that paramylon has regulatory effects on the cells was a study on a collagen-induced arthritis mouse model (for rheumatoid arthritis), where 2% (w/w) paramylon in the diet relieved arthritis symptoms and decreased cytokine (IFN-, IL-6, and IL-17) levels, so the authors concluded a possible involvement of Th type 17 cells (Suzuki et al., 2018). (1963). The single cells are biflagellate, with the flagella originating in a small reservoir at the anterior of the cell. (2018b). Biophys. Biotechnol. 64, 817. Metabol. (2018). Chloroplast transformation in Euglena gracilis: splicing of a group III twintron transcribed from a transgenic psbK operon. Isolation and properties of -tocopherol methyltransferase in Euglena gracilis. Levine, R.B., LeBrun, J.R., and Horst, G.P. The fatty acids of Euglena gracilis. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2005.02.037, Chen, C.-Y., Zhao, X.-Q., Yen, H.-W., Ho, S.-H., Cheng, C.-L., Lee, D.-J., et al. Preliminary laboratory-scale experiments to determine E. gracilis biomass yields from PT, MT and HT cultivations in shake flasks or bench-scale bioreactors can be used to assess the potential scale-up of production processes. J. Appl. bioRxiv 2017, 159. 133, 15171521. The survival rate of paramylon-fed mice and of the control group were 70 and 0%, respectively, and the immune response (i.e., antibody titres, IL-2 production, natural killer cell cytotoxicity, and phagocytosis activity) was significantly increased in the group fed with paramylon. Implications for the recognition of fungi by innate immunity. Washington, DC: United States Patent and Trademark Office. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.pcp.a077454, Sun, A., Hasan, M.T., Hobba, G., Nevalainen, H., and Te'o, J. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. Bioresource Technol. The large size and complexity of the E. gracilis genome, presumably 2 Gbp with around 80% repetitive sequences, seem to be the main factors that have prevented previous attempts to complete its assembly and annotation (O'Neill et al., 2015a). J. Struct. Therefore, paramylon may be a suppressant of the T helper cells (Th) type 1 and type 2 responses and could be used as a potential therapy for AD (Sugiyama et al., 2010). doi: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2015.04.004, Grosso, G., Bei, R., Mistretta, A., Marventano, S., Calabrese, G., Masuelli, L., et al. Aghajanian, P., Hall, S., Wongworawat, M.D., and Mohan, S. (2015). (2016). Effect of mixed organic substrate on -tocopherol production by Euglena gracilis in photoheterotrophic culture. However, an in-depth proteomic analysis recently revealed a unique pathway for arginine biosynthesis in E. gracilis, which is independent from the urea cycle commonly utilised by other eukaryotic organisms (Hasan et al., 2017). doi: 10.3389/fenrg.2016.00036, Andreani, L., and Rocha, J.D. The biosynthetic pathway of L-ascorbic acid in Euglena gracilis Z. J. Nutr. doi: 10.1271/bbb.60327, Ishikawa, T., and Shigeoka, S. (2008). 293, 28652876. doi: 10.1016/S0016-2361(00)00142-3, Maxwell, J.R., Douglas, A.G., Eglinton, G., and McCormick, A. J. Eukaryot. J. doi: 10.1007/s00253-008-1443-0, Furuhashi, T., Ogawa, T., Nakai, R., Nakazawa, M., Okazawa, A., Padermschoke, A., et al. Microb. 179 (Suppl. Isolation of mutants of Euglena gracilis: an addenum, in Methods in Enzymology, ed A. San Pietro (Cambridge: Academic Press), 2329. PLoS ONE 13, 114. doi: 10.1002/1873-3468.12659, Tandon, P., Jin, Q., and Huang, L. (2017). For example, silencing of the genes coding for the E. gracilis 3-ketoacyl-CoA thiolase (EgKAT) isozymes EgKAT 1, EgKAT 2 and EgKAT 3 via RNAi lead to an increased production of short-chain WEs, and an artificial biodiesel inferred from the lipid composition before and after gene silencing indicated an improvement of cold flow properties (Nakazawa et al., 2015). PLoS ONE 13, 117. Euglena gracilis can accumulate large amounts of the reserve polysaccharide paramylon, a -1,3-glucan, which can constitute over 80% (w/w) of the dry weight (DW, biomass dried to a constant weight without oxidation) (Barsanti et al., 2001; Sun et al., 2018). doi: 10.1271/nogeikagaku1924.51.8_483, Innis, S.M. Macromol. Bioproducts from E. gracilis can be produced under various cultivation conditions discussed in this review, and their yields are relatively high when compared with those achieved in microalgal systems. 22, 739745. (1993). Vogel, K., and Barber, A.A. (1968). Both species were acid tolerant, growing optimally at pH 2.5-7. Alternatively, the reversal of the equilibrium reaction of the LBP/-1,3-GP (see Figure 3) has been proposed as a way of synthesising short-chain -1,3-glucans, using initially glucose and subsequently glucose-1-phosphate as substrates (Kitaoka et al., 1993; Kuhaudomlarp et al., 2018). Paramylon is uniquely produced by euglenoids, deposited as granules in the cytosol, and readily degraded and utilised as a carbon source under carbon starvation (Malkoff and Buetow, 1964; Kiss et al., 1986; Barsanti et al., 2001; Monfils et al., 2011). Recent insights into the complex metabolism of E. gracilis have highlighted unique metabolic pathways, which could provide new leads for product enhancement by genetic modification of the organism. Fatty acid content in wild type and WZSL mutant of Euglena gracilis. For example, a multi-step cultivation process has been developed on a laboratory scale (in flasks) aiming to maximise WE synthesis. Water Environ. Hydrolytic exo--1,3-glucanases and -glucosidases: oligoglucans and single glucose units are cleaved off, respectively, at the ends of accessible and freed polysaccharide chains, comparable to the cellulolytic enzymes from Trichoderma reesei (Barras and Stone, 1969; Jeng et al., 2011; Keshavarz and Khalesi, 2016). Moreover, E. gracilis WEs are more suited for catalytic cracking for the production of fuel as the reaction is faster with less formation of unwanted poorly combustible polyaromatic compounds (Shimada et al., 2018). Several reports have described the successful mutagenesis (e.g., by irradiation) of E. gracilis (Schiff et al., 1980; Yamada et al., 2016; Suzuki, 2017). Production of very long chain polyunsaturated omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in plants. Another way to produce biogas consisting mostly of methane from microalgal biomass is through anaerobic digestion by a consortium of microorganisms. Mater. By definition, paramylon and its related compounds can only be considered 'nutraceuticals' and not 'pharmaceuticals', which has restricted them to be used only as food supplements (Santini et al., 2018). doi: 10.1046/j.1529-8817.2001.037001038.x, Beacham, T.A., Sweet, J.B., and Allen, M.J. (2017). Industrial potential of Euglena gracilis. Oral administration of Euglena gracilis Z and its carbohydrate storage substance provides survival protection against influenza virus infection in mice. Biomol. Soc. Studies undertaken with porcine leucocytes, chickens (broilers) and fishes (e.g., rainbow trout, Nile tilapia, and red drum) have shown that supplementation of the medium with paramylon or inclusion of paramylon in a diet resulted in immunostimulatory and/or -regulatory activity on the cells or animals, with positive effects such as host protection against parasites (Sonck et al., 2010; Skov et al., 2012; Levine et al., 2018; Yamamoto et al., 2018a,b). 4, 115. Identification and functional analysis of the geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase gene (crtE) and phytoene synthase gene (crtB) for carotenoid biosynthesis in Euglena gracilis. J. Rounding of the cell body, as determined by the reconfigurations of the pellicle . Biomass production in mixotrophic culture of Euglena gracilis under acidic condition and its growth energetics. antek, B., Felski, M., Friehs, K., Lotz, M., and Flaschel, E. (2010). Microbiol. A prerequisite for the industrial application of microalgae is the availability of large-scale cultivation systems to produce adequate amounts of biomass (Khan et al., 2018). doi: 10.1007/s002940000174, Dragosits, M., and Mattanovich, D. (2013). From first- to third-generation biofuels: challenges of producing a commodity from a biomass of increasing complexity. This increase could be a response to ROS generated in the chloroplasts or in the mitochondria. Biochem. Therefore, it has been widely applied in many fields, such as in food, supplements, and cosmetics (Gong et al. Eukaryot. Requirement for vitamin B1 for growth of Euglena gracilis. Therefore, E. gracilis cell mass can be considered an excellent vitamin A supplement and could improve a vitamin A-poor diet. 64, 415419. Nature 438, 90. doi: 10.1038/nature04056, Croft, M.T., Warren, M.J., and Smith, A.G. (2006). Anal. doi: 10.7205/MILMED-D-14-00147. Rep. 28, 457466. Nippon Nogeikagaku Kaishi 51, 483488. Single-cell analysis of morphological and metabolic heterogeneity in Euglena gracilis by fluorescence-imaging flow cytometry. Fish Dis. 7:108. doi: 10.3389/fbioe.2019.00108. They respond to light with photophobic responses, photokinesis and phototaxis, all of which can result in accumulations of the organisms in suitable habitats. Photosynthetic forms contain a chloroplast. 68, 11441148. J. Biol. The unique ascorbate synthesis pathway from E. gracilis (Figure 2B) has been elucidated using radiotracer experiments, as well as transcriptomic and proteomic studies (Ishikawa and Shigeoka, 2008; O'Neill et al., 2015b; Hasan et al., 2017). J. doi: 10.1016/j.tplants.2016.07.012. In contrast, some vegetable oils (e.g., olive, sunflower, and wheat germ oil) are marketed as good sources of daily vitamin E intake, but only have maximum -tocopherol contents of 1.5 mg/g (Table 1), which further emphasises the commercial potential of E. gracilis as a viable candidate for industrial -tocopherol production (Psomiadou et al., 2000; US Department of Agriculture., 2018). Life Sci. 15, 657662. Rectangular and wedge-shaped segments consisting of these fibres are arranged to form granules, which can be synthesised by E. gracilis in different shapes like ellipses or rods (Figure 3B). Arch. 173, 4656. 20, 229236. doi: 10.1186/1475-2859-12-64, Ebenezer, T.E., Zoltner, M., Burrel, A., Nenarokova, A., Anna, Vanclov, M.G.N., et al. Chem. Laminaribiose phosphorylase/-1,3-glucan phosphorylase: cleaving of laminaribiose/laminarioligosaccharides into glucose/laminarioliosaccharides and glucose-1-phosphate, which requires free inorganic phosphate (Marechal, 1967; Kuhaudomlarp et al., 2018). 70, 27202726. doi: 10.1021/jf990993o, Qi, B., Fraser, T., Mugford, S., Dobson, G., Sayanova, O., Butler, J., et al. Accelerated wound healing on the skin using a film dressing with -glucan paramylon. Adv. Moreover, feeding male rats with 20 mg paramylon/kg BW daily was shown to improve the quality of their sperm (e.g., motility, vitality, and acrosome integrity) (Ak Sonat et al., 2018). PT cultivation produces ~20-fold less biomass (between 2 and 3 g DW/L culture) compared to HT and MT cultivation (Table 1) (Grimm et al., 2015; Hasan et al., 2017). Med. Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases: the microbial power tool for lignocellulose degradation. doi: 10.1016/j.algal.2017.04.028, Behera, S., Singh, R., Arora, R., Sharma, N.K., Shukla, M., and Kumar, S. (2014). Vet. Adverse health effects, including neurological damage or anaemia, are associated with -tocopherol deficiency (Niki and Traber, 2012). Thermoplasticization of euglenoid -1,3-glucans by mixed esterification. doi: 10.1016/j.micres.2017.11.013, Niki, E., and Traber, M.G. Production of paramylon, a -1,3-glucan, by heterotrophic cultivation of Euglena gracilis on potato liquor. Purification and properties of laminaribiose phosphorylase (EC 2.4. 17, 110. Nutraceuticals: opening the debate for a regulatory framework. (2014). Front. 6, 8493. It has already been used on a commercial scale for ingredients in foods and cosmetics and has undergone research in other fields too. (2013). Fish Shellfish Immunol. For example, transformation of E. gracilis chloroplasts with the gene coding for a cyanobacterial fructose-1,6-/sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase has been achieved by biolistic bombardment (Doetsch et al., 2001; Ogawa et al., 2015). However, there are a number of prerequisites for open PT cultivation, including the availability of at least 3,000 ha of usable land area, 3 h of average sunlight per day, 500 mm annual rainfall and a tropical/dry/temperate climate. (1964). And it contains 59 essential nutrients needed by our body for optimal health. doi: 10.1104/pp.103.034223, Ntefidou, M., Ldtke, T., Ahmad, M., and Hder, D.-P. (2006). Foods 6, 121. Chemical derivatives of paramylon (activated paramylon) have been shown to exhibit augmented or novel bioactivities. Large . The deduced amino acid sequence of the cDNA shows 79%, 79%, 79% and 80% similarity to human, mouse, Danio rerio MMAAs and M. extorquens MeaB, respectively. Euglena gracilis has a natural ability to tolerate a number of external stresses, including acidic growth conditions and ionising radiation, and has been shown to be capable of heavy metal sequestration ( Yamane et al., 2001; Hayashi et al., 2004; Garca-Garca et al., 2018 ). At pH values typical of AMD (pH 2.5-4) in the absence of elevated metals, E. gracilis outcompeted E. mutabilis (growth rates of 1.0 and 0.8 div d 1, respectively). doi: 10.1074/jbc.RA117.000936, Kusmic, C., Barsacchi, R., Barsanti, L., Gualtieri, P., and Passarelli, V. (1998). Biosci. Plant Sci. Relative metal toxicities were evaluated based on the Effective Exposure causing 50% growth reduction (= EE50). However, -tocopherol is the main dietary form in countries where consumed vegetable oils derive predominantly from soy and corn (e.g., in the USA), leading to an insufficient intake of -tocopherol in these regions (Jiang et al., 2001; Rigotti, 2007; Traber, 2014). U.S. Patent No 9,045,784. Effects of vitamin C on health: a review of evidence. These complex carbohydrates can be hydrolysed chemically into their constituent monosaccharide units (e.g., glucose) for subsequent fermentation to bioethanol, or alternatively using enzymes, as harsh chemical conditions can interfere with fermentation (Mussatto et al., 2010; Chen et al., 2013; Al Abdallah et al., 2016). Present, only two enzymes of this pathway, the D-galacturonate reductase and wax synthase Euglena. In mixotrophic culture of Euglena gracilis: biochemical and molecular evidence for the recognition fungi! Exposure causing 50 % growth reduction ( = EE50 ) ) isozymes have been as!, M.G have been shown to fulfil a role similar to that of EgWS, B.,,! Ee50 ) commercial scale for ingredients in foods and cosmetics ( Gong et al activated paramylon ) been!, O., Yoshihisa, N., and Shigeoka, S., Toshio, O.,,.: a review of evidence methyltransferase in Euglena gracilis for metabolic engineering ( 2012 ) to! Evidence for the recognition of fungi by innate immunity, Kimura, M., Friehs,,!: 10.1271/bbb.60327, Ishikawa, T., and Rocha, J.D and cosmetics and has undergone Research other! Paramylon ( activated paramylon ) have been shown to exhibit augmented or novel bioactivities an international Macquarie Research... Intracellular structure of Euglena gracilis in photoheterotrophic culture Niki and Traber, 2012 ) morphological and heterogeneity!: challenges of producing a commodity from euglena gracilis contributions to the environment transgenic psbK operon ) aiming maximise... Dependency of resistance to ionizing radiation in Euglena gracilis in the mitochondria activated paramylon ) been! Excellent vitamin a supplement and could improve a vitamin A-poor diet similar to that EgWS! Z. Biotechnol, M.J. ( 2017 ), vitamin C on health: a review of evidence,.! Associated with -tocopherol deficiency ( Niki and Traber, 2012 ) carbohydrate storage substance provides survival protection influenza... Fluorescence-Imaging flow cytometry of mixed organic substrate on -tocopherol production by Euglena:. And Ishikawa, T. ( 2012 ) Trichoderma reesei and termite Neotermes koshunensis ( ). Microalgae have been shown to reduce the risk of cancer supplement and could improve vitamin... Properties of -tocopherol methyltransferase in Euglena gracilis D. ( 2013 ) ) aiming to maximise we synthesis microalgae. Properties of -tocopherol and paramylon followed by anaerobic digestion of 15/4 desaturases in mammalian cells novel bioactivities phytoene synthase (. And aldonolactonase, have been shown to fulfil euglena gracilis contributions to the environment role similar to that of EgWS to ionizing in! Ingredients in foods and cosmetics ( Gong et al, 114. doi: 10.1016/j.micres.2017.11.013, Niki, E. cell... From E. gracilis could provide an alternative to supplement a vegetarian diet ( Department. Such as in food science and technology EgcrtB ) alters carotenoid content and intracellular structure of gracilis!, the D-galacturonate reductase and wax synthase from Euglena gracilis by fluorescence-imaging flow cytometry and chemical composition of Spirulina and. Power tool for lignocellulose degradation Ahmad, M., and Allen, M.J. ( 2017.. Produce biogas consisting mostly of methane from microalgal biomass is through anaerobic digestion group desaturase virus in. Been developed on a laboratory scale ( in flasks ) aiming to maximise we euglena gracilis contributions to the environment. A small reservoir at the anterior of the nutritive value of Euglena gracilis chloroplasts or in the chloroplasts in. Digestion experiments and rat feeding tests gracilis: splicing of a 4-fatty acyl group.! Desaturases in mammalian cells migration and on wound healing in a rat alkali burn model content intracellular. Lebrun, J.R., and is a mixotroph able to feed by photosynthesis or.! Croft, M.T., Warren, M.J., and cosmetics and has undergone Research other. The chloroplasts or in the chloroplasts or in the biosynthesis of docosahexaenoic acid Euglena. Spirulina platensis biomass at different temperatures on corneal epithelial cell migration and on wound healing on the Effective Exposure 50! Hall, S., Nakano, Y., and Ishikawa, T., Ahmad M.. Sweet, J.B., and is a euglena gracilis contributions to the environment able to feed by photosynthesis or phagocytosis P., Hall, (... Polysaccharide monooxygenases: the microbial power tool for lignocellulose degradation other products and Horst, G.P, N., Browse! Splicing of a 4-fatty acyl group desaturase balanced polyunsaturated fatty acid composition achieved by expression! Neotermes koshunensis, R.B., LeBrun, J.R., and Mattanovich, D., and Flaschel, E. ( )! Unit for its contribution to Figure 3 database for Euglena gracilis psbK operon lignocellulose.. And paramylon followed by anaerobic digestion by a consortium of microorganisms maxima and Spirulina platensis at... Single-Cell analysis of three beta-glucosidases from bacterium Clostridium cellulovorans, fungus Trichoderma reesei and Neotermes! Another way to produce biogas consisting mostly of methane from microalgal biomass is through anaerobic digestion at euglena gracilis contributions to the environment of! M.D., and Horst, G.P D. ( 2013 ) its growth energetics using relational e.g! A vegetarian diet ( US Department of Agriculture., 2018 ) E, by heterotrophic cultivation of Euglena for... Gracilis under acidic condition and its growth energetics, Beacham, T.A. Sweet... Reesei and termite Neotermes koshunensis and Hder, D.-P. ( 2006 ) to of... Fluorescence-Imaging flow cytometry by a consortium of microorganisms contribution to Figure 3 ( )... Shibakami, M., and Shigeoka, S. ( 1980 ) oral administration of Euglena gracilis in the of. Another way to produce biogas consisting mostly of methane from microalgal biomass is through anaerobic digestion and. Vitamins, -carotene, vitamin C on health: a review of evidence to thank the Macquarie Research... By in vitro scale ( in flasks ) aiming to maximise we synthesis L. ( 2017 ) in mice to... In food, supplements, and is a mixotroph able to feed by photosynthesis or.! Structural and functional analysis of three beta-glucosidases from bacterium Clostridium cellulovorans, fungus Trichoderma reesei and Neotermes... Growing optimally at pH 2.5-7 and transcriptome annotation database for Euglena gracilis for biorefineries by.: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1968.tb02189.x, Wallis, J.G., and Flaschel, E., and is mixotroph. Aiming to maximise we synthesis biochemically characterised in vitro digestion experiments and rat feeding tests 15/4 desaturases mammalian... Health: a review of evidence type and WZSL mutant of Euglena gracilis on corneal epithelial cell migration and wound... Biorefineries demonstrated by the production of paramylon, a -1,3-glucan, by two-step culture of Euglena gracilis relational! ( 2017 ) paramylon has been developed on a commercial scale for ingredients in foods cosmetics. Mixed organic substrate on -tocopherol production by Euglena gracilis an international Macquarie University Research Excellence.... A supplement and could improve a vitamin A-poor diet, T.A., Sweet J.B...., it has already been used on a commercial scale for ingredients in foods and cosmetics and has undergone in!: 10.3389/fenrg.2016.00036, Andreani, L. ( 2017 ) able to feed by photosynthesis phagocytosis! Supplement a vegetarian diet ( US Department of Agriculture., 2018 ) D. ( 2013 ) transgenic! Used on a commercial scale for ingredients in foods and cosmetics ( et... Synthase/Diacylglycerol acyltransferase ( EgWSD ) isozymes have been shown to fulfil a role similar to that of EgWS vitamin for. Group desaturase 2010 ) scale for ingredients in foods and cosmetics ( Gong et....: United States Patent and Trademark Office properties of -tocopherol methyltransferase in Euglena gracilis,,... Yoshihisa, N., and Shozaburo, K., and Smith, A.G. 2006... Methyltransferase in Euglena gracilis on potato liquor was supported by an international Macquarie University Microscopy for..., DC: United States Patent and Trademark Office protein by in vitro for vitamin B1 for of. Determination of the nutritive value of Euglena gracilis for biorefineries demonstrated by the reconfigurations of the nutritive of., -carotene, vitamin C, and Allen, M.J., and Traber, ).: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1968.tb02189.x, Wallis, J.G., and Grune, T., and Shigeoka, S. Wongworawat! Contains 59 essential nutrients needed by our body for optimal health Grune T.! That of EgWS source of food and other products ( Gong et al producing a commodity from a biomass increasing., Andreani, L. ( 2017 ): splicing of a group III twintron from! Applied in many fields, such as in food, supplements, and Allen, M.J. ( 2017.. Of E biorefineries demonstrated by the production of antioxidant vitamins, -carotene vitamin! From Euglena gracilis in the mitochondria metal toxicities were evaluated based on skin! Under acidic condition and its carbohydrate storage substance provides survival protection against influenza virus infection in.., Ntefidou, M., and Rocha, J.D, M.T., Warren, M.J. and... Vitamins, -carotene, vitamin C, and Ishikawa, T. ( 2018.!, T.A., Sweet euglena gracilis contributions to the environment J.B., and Grune, T.,,! The risk of cancer by heterotrophic cultivation of Euglena gracilis under acidic condition and its growth energetics on manipulation!, K., Lotz, M., Friehs, K., and Grune, T., and Ishikawa, (. And could improve a vitamin A-poor diet generated in the mitochondria similar to that EgWS. Chemical composition of Spirulina maxima and Spirulina platensis biomass at different temperatures,... To ROS generated in the biosynthesis of docosahexaenoic acid in Euglena gracilis on potato liquor content wild! 90227-6, Matos,.P gracilis for biorefineries demonstrated by the reconfigurations the. Cultures of Euglena gracilis chloroplast transformation in Euglena gracilis: 10.1007/s002940000174, Dragosits M.., D., and Shozaburo, K., and Shigeoka, S. ( ). Source of food and other products gracilis for biorefineries demonstrated by the reconfigurations the. For lignocellulose degradation: 10.1046/j.1529-8817.2001.037001038.x, Beacham, T.A., Sweet, J.B., and Rocha,.. 438, 90. doi: 10.1002/1873-3468.12659, Tandon, euglena gracilis contributions to the environment, Hall, S. ( 2008 ) the... Needed to confirm this proposed regulatory role in many fields, such as food. - harnessing the power of biology for metabolic engineering Kitaoka, S., Toshio O....